Technological Determinism

The Technological Determinism theory states that there is a strong tie between technology and society’s nature. Marshal McLuhan believed that new electronic media modifies how an individual think, feel and act in a society. This means evolution of technology cause cultural change and shape human existence as we move from one age to another i.e., Tribal Age, Literate Age, Print Age and Electronic Age.

Technology has advanced through the years and has made a huge influence in the way we live, the way we communicate, the way travel, the way learn and educate, and a lot more. Technology offered so many changes and had been brought about by the continuous advancements of technology due to the people’s endless demands. Everything we use in our day-to-day lives has been innovated with better standards. For example, the first device used for telecommunications using a cellular network was first launched back in 1984, Motorola’s mobile phone DynaTac which only had limited features. Today, we have smartphones that can surf the internet, send a photo, video call, play interactive games, play music, watch videos, take pictures and can do a whole lot more in just a touch of a hand and it weighs much lighter than the first mobile phone. These are designed based from the people’s demand, making everything convenient for our everyday lives.

Human beings have always been thirsty for innovation that we tend to create media as an extension of the human body. We enhance communication through technology as a mirror of spoken language to reach further through time and space and to send out an intent or a thought.

This theory states that, we create tools and they shape us as an individual and as a society. Our everyday live, family, workplace, school, religion, friendship, politics are all influenced by the communication technology. Media increase our efficiency, and interpret our social existence.

McLuhan states that “the medium is the message” which means the medium used, influences the mind of the receiver. I.e., posters, television commercials, news prints, and the internet have shown technological advances and have made a huge impact to the culture we live in.  The new technologies alter the way an individual use their senses while the content or the message plays a subordinate role.

According to McLuhan, the crucial inventions that changed life were the phonetic alphabet, the printing press and the telegraph: the phonetic alphabet entered the human race to the age of literacy and Gutenberg’s press started the Industrial Revolution. 

Media Analysis of History:

1.      The Tribal Age

This age emphasises on oral communication, oral culture and storytelling where everything is based on what we hear and what we say. 

2.      Age of Literacy: Writing

In this age, the visual sense became more dominant. People learned how to write their thoughts and ideas on walls, rocks, templates and more. This promotes linear thinking, mathematics, science and philosophy.

3.      The Print Age: The Printing Press

It made the visual dependence widespread and turned personal writing to technical printing. This age started the industrial revolution.

4.      The Electronic Age: Electronic Media

This age encourages spontaneity, defined involvement and retribalization of the human race.

Our history showed evidence to explain why technology is shaping the society that surrounds us. For example, technological advancement in education: technology has played large role on the education sector. Nowadays, students learn through mobile gadgets and tablets making learning easier and convenient anytime from anywhere. Information is power, both the students the teachers can use these technologies for education. Before, students only listen and learn lectures in the classroom using the black board and visual aids. With the use of technology, students in the classroom are well engaged compared to students in a classroom with a black board.

Winner believed that changes in technology has unexpected effects as well and he called this phenomenon as the ‘technological drift’ where people drift more and more to unpredictable and uncertain consequences. Humans are slaves to technology and are forces to adapt the technological environment they are in.

In this theory, we create technology to shape us.

Spiral of Silence & Knowledge Gap

This Mass Communication Theory is originally proposed by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann - a German political scientist back in 1974. The theory of Spiral of Silence is the term meant to refer the one view that dominated the public scene and the people who are invisible from the public awareness, the tendency of the people to remain silent because of fear of separation or isolation to those around them because they feel that their views are contrary to the public’s or majority’s view on a subject.

In this theory, it explains that people constantly observe other’s behavior and comply with their approval or rejection of the public sphere. People tend to mask their thoughts and opinions when they feel that they would bare themselves to isolation pressure because of their opinion. On the other hand, the ones that are powerful or dominating who feels public support are the ones who express their opinions aboveboard and loud which creates the spiral of silence into motion because of the anxiety of the other. This theory says that the process is usually ignited by emotions and morally laden issues, the spiral is usually caused by controversial issues.

According to the Spiral of Silence Theory, Mass media may have a significant influence on the formation of the public opinion through supporting one side in a public controversy, the side will stand significantly than the other and putting the spiral of silence in motion.  The opinion of the public is limited in time and space. People live in societies therefore public opinion will function as a mechanism of social control. Hence, public opinions approves or rejects will change with time and differ from place to place.

An example of spiral of silence in media today is through the use of Social Networking Sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, Instagram and more. People constantly observes the behaviors of those who are around them and observing those who gain approval and rejection unconsciously. The spiral of silence is present in social networking sites and has become a constant cycle. Social Media are always at the reach of our finger tips, awaiting us to sign in and observe interactions.

A sub-example of this is the recent presidential election.  People tend to base their vote according to what they see online, what they think is socially accepted by many. Confident people post their insights on sites on the social issues while others take a step back and click on the like button or the dislike button without further discussions on the said issue. The media coverage slowly shapes an individual’s perception of public sentiment on an issue and these individuals fear isolation continuously.

Knowledge Gap Theory was defined by Philip J Techenor, George Donohue and Clarice N Olien. In this theory, it explains that knowledge is treated as any other commodity that is unequally distributed throughout the society and the ones that has the power has more access to it. As access to mass media increases, segments of population receive the information faster which increases the gap between the ecomonic statuses of the population.

2^nd example:

In a company, the managing director decides to post a memorandum of working hours increase which starts from 8:00 am to 10:00 pm. Majority of the employees accepted the time changes and the few are in contrary or not satisfied with this decision however, they feel overpowered by the majority hence, they cannot express their thought publicity because of fear of isolation or worst, the fear of being dismissed by the authority.

Many of us, are unconsciously silent and has the fear of isolation, we show signals of approval or disapproval depending on the norms of the society we live in. The Knowledge Gap and Spiral of Silence explains the current social gap between the powerful and the frail where the Spiral of Silence explains the reticence of the ones that belong to the lower economic status that causes Knowledge Gap to the frail and the weak. These theories work hand in hand to what we live in today. 

Social Marketing Theory

Social marketing theory is a theory that promotes socially valuable information and socially accepted behaviors. This theory incorporates marketing ideas, principles, tools, techniques, and concepts that are highly beneficial to society. This theory was developed in the 1970s by Gerald Zaltman and Philip Kotler when marketing techniques were recognized to sell ideas, attitudes, and behaviors unlike products. This is now being used by social and welfare organizations. It also includes the concept of “Edutainment” which is a combination of education and entertainment.

The concepts in Social Marketing Theory seeks to outline a framework that is useful in planning, designing, implementing and assessing social campaigns, spreading the information’s major objective using creativity than the usual unattractive public service announcements. This theory catches the interest of the public by understanding social and psychological factors which brings possibility of change in the society we live in. Target audience is identified based on the needed information. Due to the creative appeal, this social marketing strategy increases acceptability, response and practice of any social idea of the target organization. The information will be easily be accessible to the intended audience once it is distributed and packaged. Market Segmentation, Exchange Theory and Consumer Research are strategies of effective marketing that is used widely. The main objective of Social Marketing is Social Intervention or an organization in social affairs.

This theory allows the audience to clearly understand and comprehend how societal and psychological factors work to manipulate them successfully to increase effective mass media information campaigns. Social Marketing Theory aims to identify the numerous social and psychological barriers that hinders the information flow through the mass media deals with ideas and ways to overcome these barriers. 

Social Marketing includes two types which are: Optional Social Marketing is used to change behaviour while, the Strategic Social Marketing is used to generate new policies and strategies for further development.

There are four major components of Social Marketing that are also used as techniques known as the 4 P’s of the Social Marketing which are: Product, Price, Place and Promotion

The socially needed products are highly encouraged to buy or used by the target population for family planning, saving and credit organizations, healthy nutritional food, sustainable products which benefits the target audience and this is the goal of social marketing. The product must be useful and have a place in the society, these can be tangible products like things that’s are physical or non-tangible like services. The Price in the social marketing can be Monetary which refers to the price to buy the product which has the possibility to help the population or Non-Monetary is the psychological and social costs like changing a habit, the change is more profound if the price is minimum. The Place is where the target audience is located and can be found, where social marketing will be most useful and productive. The campaign of the product can be successful is the place is easily accessible to the beneficial audience. Social marketing is about promotions of the product or habit, through this information cascades to the intended audience. Advertisements using charts, documentaries, surveys are tools and techniques to make it effective to the public relations, media advocacy and entertainment. The more creative social marketing the more they promote the product better.

Social Marketing Theory has an intended audience which is in most need or most useful of a particular product and social change must be first analyzed according to the audience need. This creates awareness through social marketing, audiences get to be informed about the alternatives that can be adopted and benefited in the future. The first step of change is awareness.

An example of Social Marketing is promoting life insurance plans which are non-tangible among a particular group which is in need of a social campaign. Rather than advertising their product, they analyze the people’s behavior and follow after the people’s need and take effect on the emotional side of the audience. Another social marketing done today are oral rehydration such as, nutritious diet, smart driving, smoking hazards, traffic rules, use of phones while driving, drug awareness, corruption and other social issues for change. 

Semiotics

The theory of signs- Semiotics. It is also called as Semiology which came from the word “semeion” which means sign. It is a theory of the production and interpretation of meaning made by the deployment of acts and objects that function as a sign and we relate to other signs. The sign represents the object, referent or the mind of the interpreter. We call, “interpretant” the representation of the object. These signs may be verbal or nonverbal.

System of signs are constituted by the complex meaning-relations that can exist to one sign and another. Signs are organized through space and time to produce meanings that are constituted by mutually contextualizing relations among their signs. Semiotics studies are in art, literature, mass media, biology, education, and computers.

According to Ferdinand de Saussure (the father of 20-century linguistics), “the sign is the whole that results from the association of the signifier with the signified” where the signifier and the signified are both psychological, he refers only to a concept and not an object. Saussure was focusing on the linguistic sign or the word or speech

For example:

Signifier: the girl figure in from of the restroom

Signified: that the cubicle or the restroom is for girls only

Signifier: the “line down” sign on the ATM

Signified: the ATM line is down for repair, and it’s not available.

According to Charles Sanders Pierce, “Sign is something which stands to somebody for something in respect or capacity”.  Representamen is the form which the sign takes and it is not necessarily material. The object is to which the sign refers and lastly, the Interpretant is the idea or the interpretation of the mind.

The three classes of signs:

1.      Symbol- signifier does not resemble the signified and purely conventional

2.      Icon- signifier is perceived as resembling or imitating the signified.

3.      Index- the signifier is directly in relation in some way to the signified.

Science recognize the role of signs as a huge part of human’s social life. Signing is vital to human existence and it underlies forms or communication. Everything we use for human communication is a sign such as: gestures, facial expressions, objects, texts, rituals, food, clothes, music, codes, films, books, marketing, color, shapes, sounds and more.

According to C. Morris, humans are interpreters of signs and signs have three factors that guide interpretation:

1.      Designative Aspect: directs the interpreter to a particular object

For example: Wifi – Computer, Remote- TV, Pillow- Bed

2.      Appraisive Aspect: highlight the qualities of the object enabling evaluation

For example: Heart - Love, Dove – Peace, Glasses- Smart

3.      Prescriptive Aspect: directs the interpreter to respond in specific ways

For example: “*heart*” – “I love you”

According to Morris, human action involves signs and meanings in three ways:

1.      The Perception Stage: Humans become aware of a sign

Bill saw a “no U-turn” sign while driving.

2.      The Manipulation Stage: Human interprets and decides how to respond

He is aware that he can’t pull a U-turn there so he thought of pulling a u turn after the next available slot.

3.      The Consummation Stage: The person responds

He drove forward to the next open slot and made a U-turn.

These signs are also in-relation to our values and these are:

1.      Detachment: the person perceives autonomy or independence

2.      Dominance:  the person or systems takes over, controls, dominates another person or system

3.      Dependence: the person or system is dependent, controlled by, dominated by another person or system

Semiotics are important in our human existence because it helps us to communicate with one another and to not to take reality for granted and independent of human interpretation Every sign has the potential for multiple meanings and these are socially and culturally influenced. Signs have both denotative and connotative meanings that vary within the mind of the interpreter. Deconstructing the meaning that underlies the signs reveals social realities. Semiotics has been helping in anything involving communication like computer interfaces, cha­­­racters, and icons. 

Muted Group Theory

              The Muted Group Theory concerns with power or specifically certain  groups of people who are vulnerable and how it is used unto other people. A British Anthropologist, Edwin Ardener introduced this theory. He has contributed studies in the anthropology regarding on gender and have found that researches made by most of the ethnographers are generalized by gender which is the male population and acquire having higher preference on one side. The cry of women and the powerless remain unheard and have been ignored and muted which is estimatedly half of the world’s population and has affected the studies on the said theory and brought a gleam into the powers of the vulnerable citizens in our society.

The Muted Group Theory begins with the basis that the culture bond is language and because that women are overpowered by men, the men have more influence with the language. It means that men create words and meaning for the culture which allows expression of male ideas. While on the contrary, women are left out of this meaning creation and left out without the means of expressing themselves and leaves them as the muted group.

This theory explains the root of muteness by a certain group of people especially the group of women in our society. This theory holds on to the gender-bias where the male is at the authoritative class over women. For example, the attitude of male who consider themselves the breadwinner of the family are dominant or authoritative than women and women tend to rely on them. This age old tradition made a huge impact in our society today giving us a whole new power division.

Cheris Kramarae, a professor who made further researches on the Muted Group Theory from her feminist standpoint on how women are treated to somewhat muted and stating the idea they communication was started by men and due to that reason they take power over women. In a psychological view, women are considered less powerful than men because the needs of women are emotionally driven unlike men who are more on their the critical-drive and thus the perspective of women differs from men.

John Berger once said, “The language is the potential holding for whole human experience” which means when a woman comes to social space they are currently going through the most abusive language because women are considered in the society as the dominated class by men. Hence, men in general are taking advantage through using their socially-built existing male dominant power in the social space and has the power to protect themselves from abusive languages

Kramarae  classified 3 assumptions in The Muted Group Theory  which are: firstly, “”Women percieve the world differently from men because of women’s and men’s different experience and activities rooted in the division of labor” where it states that the way men and women thinks towards performing different tasks in the society they’re living in. Secondly, the male population is the dominant group in our society which gives the female’s point of view less importance and men act out their power politically, allowing their power and degrading or ignoring women’s ideas and meanings from gaining public acceptance. Lastly, women must adapt male language in order to have their ideas, experiences, and meanings to be heard.

This theory does not only revolve around on cross-gender situations it can also be seen and applied to many cultural groups. As women now become powerful and has the power to contribute to her family and through awareness, the perception of male dominance can be changed.

Here are assumptions that leads to a number of hypotheses and theories about women’s communication:

1.       In terms of self-expression, women find it difficult to do than men.

2.       Women is more capable of understanding men than men understanding what women wants to deliver

3.       Women communicate with each other using mediums that is not accepted by male communicators

4.       Women are less satisfied with communicating than men.

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5.       Men are more likely to create words and meanings while women do so too but create words and meanings unique and special to the women population

Mediamorphosis

Mediamorphosis is a theory by Roger Fidler that states that new media do not arise spontaneously and independently but the morph from something that is existing or emerge gradually from the metamorphosis while the older forms of media tend to adapt and evolve continuously rather than to die. The Mediamorphosis theory is also known as the ‘digital metamorphosis’ that explains and estimate the changes in the digital world and its culture. ‘New Media’ is created to update and upgrade the old media where technology is constantly changing, and involving from time to time.

This term used by the Fidler means “the transformation of communication media, usually brought about by the complex interplay of perceived needs, competitive and political pressures and scial ang technological innovations” (Fidler, 1997)

For example, Digitalization is a main feature of Mediamorphosis of the artistic communication and its development is important to the production, reproduction and distribution and reception of products. Digitalization changed the way we manipulate texts, images and sounds which are used to be tied to paper film, vinyl and more. New forms of art are introduced such as 3D modelling, installations, hybrids, film arts and etc.

Fidler identifies six principles of Mediamorphosis: Coexistence and coevolution of media forms, gradual metamorphosis of new media forms from old ones, propagation of dominant traits in media forms in media forms, survival of media forms and enterprises in changing environment, merits and needs for adopting new media and delays from proof of concept to widespread adoption of new media.

The first principle: Coexistence and coevolution of media states that all media coexist with other media and that these media coevolve and influence over time and development of their existing form. I.e., the AM (Amplitude Modulation) radio coevolved with television after the World War II era and coevolved to FM (Frequency Modulation) radio to take most of the music audience.

The second principle: Gradual metamorphosis explains that new media arise gradually changes or develop from another media format.

The third principle: Propagation explains that media propagate dominant traits from older forms and are passed and spread to the new media. For example, News prints and televisions are developed to websites that positions articles and headlines and adding video segments on the website. Another example is form of distributing information or a message. Instant messaging and short messaging as a new form to transmit information. This is the convergence of a form of person to person communication through mass medium and it had to evolve to the environment.

The fourth principle: Survival where the old media continues to adapt and evolve in accordance to the changing conditions of time rather than to die.

The fifth principle is the Opportunity and needs where new media don’t succeed  without market opportunity and motivating social, political, and economical reasons.

The last principle: Delayed Adoption states that new technologies take longer than expected to attain commercial success.

The three great Mediamorphosis in human communication are:

1.      Spoken language

Development of “broadcast” forms of storytelling and ritual performances.

Leads to social group formation and complex problem solving skills

2.      Written Language

Development of portable documents, printing, mass media

3.      Digital Language

This allows communication through technology or machines between humans. Technology extends human interactions widespread throughout the world. The three domains of human communication are:

·         Interpersonal- communication between one person to another

·         Broadcast- refers to the level of conveyance

·         Document or Internet- refers to mass media such as radio and television news.

In this sense it is not seen here only as a new distribution channel that enhances in an unprecedented way of already is existing distribution channels.

In conclusion, Mediamorphosis is a way of thinking on the technological evolution of communication media that emerge gradually from the metamorphosis of old media and the when latest forms of communication media emerge, the older forms don’t die but adapt and evolve.­­­Mediamorphosis

Mediamorphosis is a theory by Roger Fidler that states that new media do not arise spontaneously and independently but the morph from something that is existing or emerge gradually from the metamorphosis while the older forms of media tend to adapt and evolve continuously rather than to die. The Mediamorphosis theory is also known as the ‘digital metamorphosis’ that explains and estimate the changes in the digital world and its culture. ‘New Media’ is created to update and upgrade the old media where technology is constantly changing, and involving from time to time.

This term used by the Fidler means “the transformation of communication media, usually brought about by the complex interplay of perceived needs, competitive and political pressures and scial ang technological innovations” (Fidler, 1997)

For example, Digitalization is a main feature of Mediamorphosis of the artistic communication and its development is important to the production, reproduction and distribution and reception of products. Digitalization changed the way we manipulate texts, images and sounds which are used to be tied to paper film, vinyl and more. New forms of art are introduced such as 3D modelling, installations, hybrids, film arts and etc.

Fidler identifies six principles of Mediamorphosis: Coexistence and coevolution of media forms, gradual metamorphosis of new media forms from old ones, propagation of dominant traits in media forms in media forms, survival of media forms and enterprises in changing environment, merits and needs for adopting new media and delays from proof of concept to widespread adoption of new media.

The first principle: Coexistence and coevolution of media states that all media coexist with other media and that these media coevolve and influence over time and development of their existing form. I.e., the AM (Amplitude Modulation) radio coevolved with television after the World War II era and coevolved to FM (Frequency Modulation) radio to take most of the music audience.

The second principle: Gradual metamorphosis explains that new media arise gradually changes or develop from another media format.

The third principle: Propagation explains that media propagate dominant traits from older forms and are passed and spread to the new media. For example, News prints and televisions are developed to websites that positions articles and headlines and adding video segments on the website. Another example is form of distributing information or a message. Instant messaging and short messaging as a new form to transmit information. This is the convergence of a form of person to person communication through mass medium and it had to evolve to the environment.

The fourth principle: Survival where the old media continues to adapt and evolve in accordance to the changing conditions of time rather than to die.

The fifth principle is the Opportunity and needs where new media don’t succeed  without market opportunity and motivating social, political, and economical reasons.

The last principle: Delayed Adoption states that new technologies take longer than expected to attain commercial success.

The three great Mediamorphosis in human communication are:

1.      Spoken language

Development of “broadcast” forms of storytelling and ritual performances.

Leads to social group formation and complex problem solving skills

2.      Written Language

Development of portable documents, printing, mass media

3.      Digital Language

This allows communication through technology or machines between humans. Technology extends human interactions widespread throughout the world. The three domains of human communication are:

·         Interpersonal- communication between one person to another

·         Broadcast- refers to the level of conveyance

·         Document or Internet- refers to mass media such as radio and television news.

In this sense it is not seen here only as a new distribution channel that enhances in an unprecedented way of already is existing distribution channels.

In conclusion, Mediamorphosis is a way of thinking on the technological evolution of communication media that emerge gradually from the metamorphosis of old media and the when latest forms of communication media emerge, the older forms don’t die but adapt and evolve.­­­

Game Theory

The Game Theory is the study of the strategic interaction or behaviour of two or more participant or ‘players’ that are conscious that their actions do affect each other. Strategic Decisions are those in which a person, when deciding what actions to take, should take in to consideration the possibility of others to respond to the action.

For example, when two publishing companies in a city choose price for their magazines, knowing that their sales are determined mutually, they are players in the game with the other. They are in a game on who buy their magazines and not with the readers with the reason of, the readers ignores his or her effect on the publishing company.

A game is a situation or a state where the players or the participants’ take depends not only on their choices but also on the decisions of their rivals. This is also called Strategic Interactions where the participant’s optimal decisions depend on what the other players do in the game.

There are four elements to describe a game and these are: the players, actions, information, strategies, the rules where each player’s decision can highly effect on the other player/s, there will be outcome of every move and this can bring you to success or failure and lastly, the payoffs of each possible outcome such as: the price or the money each player collect for a specific outcome of an action.

The players are the participants or individuals that create and take actions. Each participants make a decision to maximize his or her utility. While the action or the move is created and done by the player whenever she is called to move or act upon the situation. The Information in a game is designed with the use of concepts of information set or the rules in the game. The elements of an information set are the different values that player thinks are possible. Information can be common knowledge if it is known to all players, if each participants are aware of this information, if each player knows that all the players know that everyone is aware of it. In a game of complete information, all players know the rules of the game. The strategy is a rule that tells the player what action to do for every situation or instances of the game that comes hand in hand with the information set to create in every conceivable situation.

Below are two example of games:

1.    Matching Pennies

In this game, every player has the chance to select one side of a coin and if the coin match, Participant A wins and collects the price (this may vary depending on the deal, this can be money, service or a physical thing) from Participant B. While on the other hand, if the coins don’t match, Participant B wins and gets the price from Participant A.

2.    The Boeing- Airbus Game

Boeing and Airbus have to choose between to invest in the development of a Super Jumbo for long distance travel and if both of them develop successfully the latest plane then their profits will go down by 50 million a year. And if only the other develop the Super Jumbo, it will make an addition of 80 million a year in profits while there will be a drop of 30 million a year for the other company. If no company develops the place then there will be no changes.

3.    Prisoner’s Dilemma

There are two suspects that are arrested and charge of a crime. The police officer lack sufficient evident to convict the suspects unless the suspect confess. The police hold then in separate cells and explain the corresponding consequence from the actions they could take. If neither of them confesses, then they will both be convicted of a minor offence and will be sentences to jail for a month. If both confess themselves then they will both be sentenced to jail for six months. And if one confesses then the confessor will be released immediately and the other will be sentenced to jail for nine months.

The strategic form of the game can be in the form of following the payoff matrix.